By the late 1700s, European periwinkles had reached America; planted as ornamental ground cover, escaped plants covered 29,254 acres across 12 Southern states by 2008

European periwinkles were introduced to North America for their attractive flowers and ability to cover bare ground. The low-growing plants were useful in gardens, where their evergreen leaves and spreading stems made them popular choices for landscaping. But once they escaped cultivation, some populations began spreading into forests and other natural habitats, where dense mats of vegetation could interfere with native plant growth.

According to the US Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service, European periwinkles had been recorded in the United States by the late 1700s. By 2008, an estimated 29,254 acres across 12 Southern states were covered by the plants. The figure included two species, bigleaf periwinkle (Vinca major) and common periwinkle (Vinca minor), both native to parts of Europe and neighbouring regions. Although they remain popular ornamental ground covers, their spread beyond gardens has made them a concern for land managers.

From garden planting to an established invader


The plants were valued for their ability to grow in shade, tolerate different soil conditions and spread across the ground. These qualities made them popular as ground cover around houses and beneath trees. Over time, some plants escaped cultivation and became established along roadsides, around abandoned homesteads and on disturbed land. Their spread into nearby natural habitats raised concerns about their effects on native vegetation.

Bigleaf periwinkle (Vinca major) is native to Mediterranean Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa, while common periwinkle (Vinca minor) originates mainly from continental Europe. Both were introduced to North America as ornamental plants, but their spread beyond gardens took place gradually over many years. By 2008, the two species had become established across thousands of acres in the southern United States. Their distribution and ecological effects vary by region, depending on local growing conditions and the surrounding plant communities.

How dense mats affect native vegetation

Periwinkles reproduce primarily by vegetative reproduction and not seed formation. Their runners have the ability to grow roots where they make contact with the ground, and thus a plant can grow into a thick network. This growth habit can form thick mats in forests, competing with native vegetation for light and space. Ecological impacts vary depending on the habitat and the species involved. For example, heavy infestations of periwinkle can affect the establishment of local tree seedlings and other vegetation in some woodlands.

According to a study conducted in Michigan and cited in the review by the Forest Service, there were far fewer native tree seedlings at locations where common periwinkle was present than at sites where the plant was absent. Survival rates for tree seedlings were better at locations where researchers had removed the ground cover in their experiments. Light competition appeared to be especially important. Lab experiments suggested that common periwinkle may chemically inhibit woody seedling growth, though this effect appeared less important than light competition.

Why removing it can be difficult

Managing established periwinkle stands can be difficult because the plant roots readily along its stems and can regrow after its above-ground growth is removed. Digging out small infestations can be effective, but larger stands often require repeated treatment. In some locations, native plants have begun growing again after bigleaf periwinkle was removed. However, removal alone may not be enough. Managers need to monitor treated areas for regrowth and prevent other invasive plants from taking over.