2,842 Palestinians allegedly evaporated in Gaza by Israeli thermobaric bombs; what are they and how do they work?

Civil Defence teams in Gaza have documented 2,842 Palestinians who have “evaporated” since the war began in October 2023, leaving behind no remains other than blood spray or small fragments of flesh, according to an investigation by Al Jazeera.

The report attributes the phenomenon to Israel’s use of thermal and thermobaric weapons, also known as vacuum or aerosol bombs, which are capable of generating temperatures exceeding 3,500 degrees Celsius, according to experts and witnesses cited in the investigation.

How were the numbers of vaporised people calculated?

The figure of 2,842 is presented not as an estimate but as the outcome of detailed forensic documentation by Gaza’s Civil Defence.


Spokesperson Mahmoud Basal explained the “method of elimination” used at strike sites to Al Jazeera. “We enter a targeted home and cross-reference the known number of occupants with the bodies recovered,” Basal said, as quoted by Al Jazeera. “If a family tells us there were five people inside, and we only recover three intact bodies, we treat the remaining two as ‘evaporated’ only after an exhaustive search yields nothing but biological traces, blood spray on walls or small fragments like scalps,” he added, according to Al Jazeera.

The chemistry of erasure

The investigation detailed how specific chemical compositions in Israeli munitions allegedly reduce human bodies to ash within seconds.

Vasily Fatigarov, identified in the report as a Russian military expert, explained the mechanism of thermobaric weapons. “To prolong the burning time, powders of aluminium, magnesium and titanium are added to the chemical mixture,” Fatigarov said, as quoted by Al Jazeera. “This raises the temperature of the explosion to between 2,500 and 3,000 degrees Celsius (4,532F to 5,432F).”

According to the investigation, such intense heat is often generated by tritonal, a mixture of TNT and aluminium powder used in United States-made bombs such as the MK-84.

Dr Munir al-Bursh, director general of the Palestinian Ministry of Health in Gaza, outlined the biological impact of extreme heat on the human body. “The boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius (212F),” al-Bursh said, as quoted by Al Jazeera. “When a body is exposed to energy exceeding 3,000 degrees combined with massive pressure and oxidation, the fluids boil instantly. The tissues vaporise and turn to ash. It is chemically inevitable.”

Thermobaric bombs used in Gaza

The investigation identified several US-manufactured munitions allegedly linked to the documented disappearances.

The MK-84 ‘Hammer’, a 900kg (2,000lb) unguided bomb packed with tritonal, is reported to generate heat up to 3,500C (6,332F).

The BLU-109 bunker buster was cited in connection with an attack on al-Mawasi in September 2024, an area Israel had declared a ‘safe zone’ for forcibly displaced Palestinians. According to the investigation, 22 people were “evaporated” in that strike. The bomb, equipped with a steel casing and delayed fuse, buries itself before detonating a PBXN-109 explosive mix, creating a large fireball in enclosed spaces.

The GBU-39 precision glide bomb was reported to have been used in the al-Tabin school attack. It contains the AFX-757 explosive. “The GBU-39 is designed to keep the building structure relatively intact while destroying everything inside,” Fatigarov noted, as quoted by Al Jazeera. “It kills via a pressure wave that ruptures lungs and a thermal wave that incinerates soft tissue.”

Basal of the Civil Defence confirmed to Al Jazeera that fragments of GBU-39 wings were found at sites where bodies had reportedly vanished.

What are thermobaric weapons?

Thermobaric weapons, also referred to as fuel-air explosives or vacuum bombs, are a class of conventional munitions designed to produce extreme heat and a sustained blast wave. Unlike traditional explosives that contain both fuel and oxidiser within a sealed casing, thermobaric weapons draw oxygen from the surrounding air to intensify the explosion. The term combines “thermo”, referring to heat, and “baric”, relating to pressure, reflecting the dual destructive effects generated by these munitions.

How they work

Thermobaric munitions typically operate in two stages. In the first stage, the weapon disperses a cloud of flammable aerosol fuel over a target area. The fuel mixes with atmospheric oxygen. A secondary ignition then detonates the cloud, producing a large fireball and a prolonged pressure wave. Because the explosion relies on ambient oxygen, it can generate temperatures reported to reach up to 3,500 degrees Celsius.

The resulting blast wave generally lasts longer than that produced by conventional high explosives and can penetrate buildings, bunkers and tunnels. In enclosed spaces, the pressure wave may reflect off walls and confined surfaces, amplifying its destructive impact.

Pressure bombs and overpressure effects

The term “pressure bomb” is not a formal military classification but is commonly used to describe weapons that rely primarily on overpressure rather than fragmentation. In conventional explosives, much of the damage is caused by shrapnel. In thermobaric and other blast-enhanced weapons, the principal destructive force stems from intense heat and a sustained pressure wave.

This overpressure can cause severe internal injuries, including lung rupture and damage to internal organs, even in the absence of significant external wounds. The rapid consumption of oxygen during detonation may also create a vacuum effect, increasing lethality in confined environments. Such characteristics make these weapons particularly effective against fortified positions, underground facilities and enclosed structures.

Legal and international concerns

Thermobaric weapons are not specifically prohibited under international law. Their use is regulated by international humanitarian law, including the principles of distinction and proportionality. Parties to a conflict are required to distinguish between military objectives and civilians and to avoid attacks that would cause excessive civilian harm relative to the anticipated military advantage.

Human rights organisations have raised concerns regarding their use in densely populated areas, arguing that their wide-area blast and heat effects increase the risk of civilian casualties and extensive structural damage, particularly in urban warfare.

Several countries, including the United States and Russia, are known to have developed thermobaric munitions. While militaries maintain that such weapons are effective against hardened or underground targets, their deployment in cities remains controversial, drawing sustained international scrutiny.